For what sugar you had?

Several different types of sugar are available, namely white, golden brown and the so-called 'speciality sugars' which include soft brown, caramel brown, multicoloured crystals, castor, icing and yellow sugar. Golden brown sugar is the end product of the milling process. Also known as raw sugar, it is from this that all the following types of sugar are produced:

• Soft brown sugar is made by adding extra molasses to raw sugar.
• Caramel brown sugar is produced by adding caramel flavouring and colouring (also made from sugar).

Yellow sugar has simply had yellow colouring added to it.

• White sugar is a refined raw sugar.
• Castor sugar is very finely ground white sugar - which is why, if you're ever stuck without it, you can make your own by grinding ordinary white sugar in your food processor.
• Icing sugar is even more finely ground white sugar, with a little cornflour added to prevent lumps forming.

Sugar and nutrition

Sugar is pure carbohydrate and as such its main contribution to the diet is food energy. One gram provides 17 kilojoules (4 calories). This energy is readily availableto the body, that is, the body can use it very quickly and efficiently. This may be either an advantage or a disadvantage, depending on the situation. For example, for anathlete taking part in an endurance event and therefore requiring a quick energy top-up, sugar is very useful. On the other hand, for diabetics - who have difficulty keeping their blood sugar level under control - the fact bloodstream relatively quickly is a

Another aspect to consider regarding sugar as an energy source is that it is inexpensive. This may not be of concern in affluent nations, but it means that sugar can be used to supplement energy-deficient diets of impoverished communities.

Despite claims to the contrary, the difference between the nutritional value of brown as opposed to white sugar is negligible. The brown variety does contain more molasses (the syrup left behind when sugar crystals are produced from sugar cane) and molasses is a rich source of certain nutrients, but in terms of the overall contribution to the diet, the amounts are insignificant. As an illustration, while molasses is considered a good source of iron, in order to meet the Recommended Daily Allowance for iron for an adult woman from brown sugar alone, one would have to eat nearly half a kilogram!

Why is sugar found in so many foods?

One of the major concerns people have about sugar is the fact that it is found in such a wide variety of foods - including foods that don't even taste sweet - which makes it easy to consume relatively large amounts of sugar without being aware of it. The reason it is used so widely is because it is a very versatile product. It has certain properties which enable it to perform numerous functions in foods - for example, it adds flavour, colour and texture and acts as a natural preservative.

Although sugar substitutes are available, none of these has all the properties of sugar and many products in which it is used would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to produce without sugar. For example, sugar may be used in the production of bread to improve its shelf life and in beer to assist with fermentation. Since South African food law states that food ingredients must be listed in descending order of quantity, you can get a good idea of the extent to which sugar has been used in a product simply by reading labels.

A spoonful of moderation

Having looked at where sugar comes from, what it does and its role in nutrition and health, it is clear that as is the case with so many other aspects of nutrition, much of what is commonly believed is not necessarily accurate. Too often, what is held to be absolute truth is in fact the result of assumptions and hearsay rather than controlled scientific research.

As far as sugar is concerned, the conclusion to which research has brought us is that, provided it is used in moderation as part of a balanced diet, it is not harmful. But what, you may ask, is moderation? It is difficult to give specific quantities because we all have different energy requirements, but the general consensus is that it is acceptable to consume up to 10% of your total energy intake in the form of simple carbohydrates (that is, all sugars). For an average adult man, this would be the equivalent of about 16 teaspoons of table sugar per day; for a woman, about 12 teaspoons. However, because (as mentioned above) so much of the sugar we consume is 'hidden' in manufactured or processed foods, it is very difficult to establish exactly how much sugar you are in fact eating. The best policy, therefore, is to have three balanced meals a day, concentrating on fresh, wholesome foods which are prepared at home wherever possible. Sugar, used sensibly to improve the palatability of such a diet, forms a useful part of good nutrition.

Indifference - the biggest enemy? continue...

Colon cancer update

Some recent findings to do with the prevention of colon cancer (one of the most common cancers) are heartening. Studies on human beings have shown that including less fat and more fibre in one's dietprobably lessens the presence of `mutagens' (substances which can promote the development of cancer) in the bowel contents.

A recent four-year study in the USA also produced interesting results. The subjects of the research were a series of patients with 'familial adenomatous polyposis'. This refers to a segment of the population with bowel polyps which are particularly prone to become cancerous. (Polyps are growths with a pedicle or stem which usually develop on mucous membranes.) These patients were put on a high fibre diet (about 22g of fibre daily compared with the usual daily intake of about 12g), the extra fibre being provided by commercial bran cereal. In all the patients, a regression or shrinking of the polyps resulted - an outcome which was regarded as very promising by the US National Cancer Institute.

Also interesting is the fact that elderly blacks examined in the Department of Gastroenterology at Baragwanath Hospital, Soweto, showed no evidence of polyps; indeed their bowels had the appearance and elasticity of that of white teenagers! Among old rural blacks, colon cancer is extremely rare and even among urban dwellers, its occurrence is only a tenth of that found in elderly whites. The significance seems to be that the diets of these people are generallymuch higher in fibre and lower in fat than those of their white counterparts.

Eating to combat cancer - a day's sample menu**

* Breakfast: Cereals (such as All-Bran flakes or Weet-Bix), or oatmeal porridge, with milk and sugar

* Orange juice, a poached egg on brown (preferably wholewheat) toast and a couple of slices of tomato

Tea or coffee

* Lunch: 2 or 3 slices of brown or wholewheat bread with margarine,cottage cheese, salad (eg lettuce, celery, raw carrot), an apple or a banana

Tea or coffee

Dinner: Fish or chicken (not fried), brown rice, baked or newpotatoes, a green vegetable, baked beans, gem squash and a brown roll

Stewed or canned fruit (eg pineapple) and yoghurt

**This suggested menu provides about 30% of energy from fat and about 20-25g dietary fibre.

The alcohol/cancer link

Too much alcohol is a risk factor for the development of several cancers, especially of the liver, oesophagus, lung, pancreas and rectum. But here again, little notice has been taken of calls to cut down and levels of consumption are still rising, not only in many Western populations but in all Third World urban populations as well.

What is a reasonable or safe alcohol intake? For the majority of consumers there is no health problem, since it is considered that the majority of people who drink do so moderately and never experience any harmful effects. The crucial question is: What is a sensible limit? The liver burns up one standard drink (a half pint of beer, a glass ofwine, a measure of whisky) in an hour. With this in mind, the following safe allowances have been put forward:

For men, four to six standard drinks, two or three times a week. Or, at most, from 18 to 20 standard drinks weekly. For women, two or three standard drinks, two or three times a week or, at most, 9 to 13 standard drinks weekly.

These recommendations (endorsed by World Health 1985) were set out by the London Health Education Council in a booklet titled 'That's the Limit: a Guide to Sensible Drinking'. The reason why the limits for women are lower than for men is twofold: firstly, in men, water makes up 55-65°/o of body weight and in women, 45-55%, therefore alcohol is more diluted in men than in women; secondly, alcohol is potentially more noxious in women than in men.

Smoking and cancer

Smoking is believed to be responsible, directly or indirectly, for about a third of total cancers. It increases the risk of certain diet-related cancers such as breast cancer, but appears to have little influence with others, such as cancer of the prostate. In many Western populations there has been a major decrease in cigarette smoking among men, although far less so among women. In the USA, current frequencies are 32% for men, but 26% for women. Nowadays more young women than young men smoke, and today's female smoker is a heavier onethan yesterday's!

In Third World countries, tobacco use is rapidly increasing - in African populations, consumption has doubled in the last 10 years. So the dismal view is that all tobacco-related cancers, especially lung cancer, will almost certainly increase in the years to come.

Tofu Recipes - Nutritious Gravy

This delicious brown gravy is packed with protein.

• 1/2 cup tofu, mashed until there are no lump
• 1'1/2cups water
• 1 package Ham's or Mayacamas brown gravy mix

1. In a saucepan, blend the mashed tofu with water.
2. Add Ham's or Mayacamas brown gravy mix and cook over medium heat. stirring. constantly. until thickened. Serve over browned, sliced tofu patties. mashed or baked potatoes, or brown rice.

Variation: Saute1/2 pound sliced mushroom, and onions and add them to the gravy. Just before serving, add 1 cup plain yogurt and serve over noodles Stroganoff-style. Or, to make chicken Marshal, substitute 1/2cup Marshal cooking wine for 1/2 cup of the water and add sautéed mushrooms to the gravy and ladle over free-range chicken.